From Partnership Expansion to Strategic Coherence: Vietnam’s Next Foreign Policy Challenge

Vietnam’s recent wave of upgraded Comprehensive Strategic Partnerships (CSP) reflects an expansion of its diplomatic network and a broader effort to recalibrate its foreign policy in response to a more complex regional environment. At the 14th National Party Congress, the leadership emphasised a more proactive and responsible approach to international engagement. The rapid elevation of ties with diverse partners, ranging from major powers and middle powers to key regional actors, signals a more forward-looking approach to expand Vietnam’s engagement while maintaining strategic autonomy.

The elevation of Vietnam-European Union (EU) ties to a CSP in January marked the fifteenth time such a relationship has been established, highlighting the rapid expansion of Vietnam’s top-tier network since 2008, with most ‘upgrades’ occurring since 2022. However, this expansion raises questions, as the CSPs do not carry equal weight or serve identical functions. In particular, Vietnam’s relationship with China occupies a distinct position, shaped by geographical proximity, dense economic linkages and complex political and security considerations.

Against this backdrop, the central task for Vietnam is to organise and utilise its expanding CSP network more coherently to advance national development, strategic autonomy and contribute to regional stability.  

At the structural level, the CSP network reflects Vietnam’s long-standing policy of diversification and multilateralisation and its aspiration to be friendly with all countries. Vietnam’s establishment of CSPs with all five permanent members of the UN Security Council, influential middle powers, key fellow ASEAN member states (AMS) including Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore, and the EU in early 2020s has created a multi-vector diplomatic architecture spanning the security, economic, technological and political domains. This configuration reduces dependence on any single partner while enhancing strategic flexibility and room for manoeuvre.

Beyond structural breadth, the CSP framework carries a signalling dimension. In a more polarised Indo-Pacific compared to the previous decade, assigning top-tier status to diverse partners could help Vietnam to mitigate alignment pressures and manage external perceptions. Vietnam’s foreign policy is widely seen as pragmatic and balanced, maintaining ties with partners while avoiding over-reliance on any single one. By prioritising flexibility over formal non-alignment, including in its relations with China, Vietnam leverages its CSPs to expand cooperation in select areas without entering into alliance commitments.

The CSP network also reflects Vietnam’s aspiration to be a more constructive and responsible middle power, consistent with its foreign policy which emphasises proactive contribution to regional and global affairs. Elevating ties with key AMS reinforces Vietnam’s role within ASEAN-centred mechanisms and norm-setting processes. The CSPs with the EU and other middle powers that share interests in promoting a peaceful, stable and development-oriented environment further reflects Vietnam’s commitment to rules-based multilateralism.

Notably, the establishment of CSPs with former adversaries like France and the US reflects the principle of “more friends, fewer enemies” in Vietnam’s foreign policy. The transformation of once conflictual relationships into top-tier partnerships illustrates efforts to move beyond historical grievances. In doing so, Vietnam presents itself as a pragmatic, tolerant actor, open to engaging with all partners despite differences in historical experiences or political systems.

These features suggest that the CSP framework, guided by the Party leadership, is not an ad hoc collection of upgrades but a gradual consolidation of Vietnam’s core foreign policy principles: independence, self-reliance, diversification and multilateralisation.

The next phase lies not in further expansion, but careful consolidation…

As the CSP network grows denser, a new policy challenge emerges: maintaining coherence across the network. The issue is not the number of CSPs, but how they are utilised to advance national objectives, particularly national development, strategic autonomy and regional stability. While CSPs encompass areas from political-security cooperation to economic integration, technology and sustainable development, these elements are typically articulated on a bilateral basis. Without stronger coordination, there is a risk of overlapping agendas and fragmented implementation.

Ensuring coherence requires clearer mechanisms to align partnerships with a more focused set of national priorities. One practical approach is to further systematise cooperation across CSPs, while preserving their comprehensive scope. Strategic clusters such as digital and green transition, maritime cooperation, supply chain resilience and human resource development are already evident in some partnerships and align with Vietnam’s priorities. Building on these patterns in a more coordinated manner, Vietnam can compare experiences, avoid duplication and better channel external resources including investment, technology transfer and capacity-building support from partners towards national development strategies. Further strengthening inter-agency coordination in a more outcome-oriented manner would enhance tangible results.  

A coherent CSP strategy can enhance Vietnam’s role as a bridge-builder among partners that may be strategic rivals. Given its broad network of ties, Vietnam can encourage dialogue and practical cooperation in less sensitive areas such as climate adaptation, disaster response and sustainable development to support confidence-building. For example, Vietnam’s hosting of the 2019 DPRK-US Summit underscored this ability. Recent efforts to promote inclusive dialogue through platforms like the ASEAN Future Forum suggest Vietnam’s shift towards more flexible and networked forms of engagement.

Finally, the effective use of CSPs can reinforce ASEAN’s external relations. As many of Vietnam’s CSP partners are also ASEAN partners, bilateral cooperation can be aligned with ASEAN priorities and channelled into regional mechanisms. This approach was evident during Vietnam’s 2020 ASEAN Chairmanship when it contributed to the conclusion of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership. Whereas earlier partnerships focused on bilateral confidence-building and economic cooperation, Vietnam’s growing CSP network supports regional integration, ASEAN centrality and a stable, inclusive regional order.

In sum, Vietnam’s expanding CSP network reflects a shift from building partnerships to a broader strategic approach. The next phase lies not in further expansion, but careful consolidation to transform a wider network of partnerships into a more coordinated architecture that advances national development, strategic resilience and regional stability.

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